2
10
20
-
https://shec.ashp.cuny.edu/files/original/ballot_13d2c1494a.png
8986c9b93f9c5eca6fe759f4c57dddc7
Omeka Image File
The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files.
Bit Depth
8
Height
499
Width
300
Pamphlet/Petition
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1919
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Pamphlet
Title
A name given to the resource
A Steelworkers' Ballot Calls "Strike!" in Many Tongues
Language
A language of the resource
English
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
American Social History Project / Center for Media and Learning
Description
An account of the resource
In the years after World War I, American workers sought to consolidate and expand the gains they had achieved during the war years. In September 1919, some 350,000 steelworkers went on strike, seeking higher wages, shorter hours and better working conditions. Steel companies, often with assistance of local governments, responded with violent tactics, eventually employing African Americans and Mexican Americans as strikebreakers. The strike eventually went down to defeat, with steel companies playing both on the racism of the workers and the public's aversion to the fact that many of the strikers were immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. This ballot, printed in English, Croatian, Hungarian, Italian, Slovak, and Polish and distributed by the National Committee for Organizing Iron and Steel Workers, reflects the broad range of nationalities comprising the industry's workforce.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
National Committee for Organizing Iron and Steel Workers
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
William Z. Foster, <em>The Great Steel Strike and Its Lessons</em> (1920) American Social History Project.
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
Modern America (1914-1929)
Subject
The topic of the resource
Labor Activism
American Federation of Labor
Italian Immigration
World War I
-
https://shec.ashp.cuny.edu/files/original/garmentworkers_25b2d2d39d.png
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Omeka Image File
The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files.
Bit Depth
8
Height
689
Width
876
Photograph
Dublin Core
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Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Photograph
Title
A name given to the resource
Female Garment Workers Labor in a New York City Tenement
Language
A language of the resource
English
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
American Social History Project / Center for Media and Learning
Description
An account of the resource
Concentrated in New York City, the garment industry developed side by side with the sweatshop system of labor. Sweatshops employed a handful of workers, almost all of whom were immigrant Jewish or Italian women. They were supervised by contractors of their own nationality, mostly men, who got materials on credit from manufacturers, bought sewing machines on installment plans, and rented lofts or tenement apartments for factories. As this circa 1900 photograph shows, women and men in sweatshop "factories" worked in cramped conditions that lacked basic safety measures.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Unknown
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
From Ric Burns and James Sanders, eds., <em>New York: An Illustrated History</em> (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999), 280.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1900 (Circa)
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
Industrialization and Expansion (1877-1913)
Subject
The topic of the resource
Work
Italian Immigration
Jewish Immigration
-
https://shec.ashp.cuny.edu/files/original/hine_tenement_55296ee9e5.png
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Omeka Image File
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Bit Depth
8
Height
480
Width
366
Photograph
Original Caption
Tenement, New York City, 1910
Dublin Core
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Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Photograph
Title
A name given to the resource
"Tenement, New York City, 1910"
Language
A language of the resource
English
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
American Social History Project / Center for Media and Learning
Description
An account of the resource
This photograph by Lewis Hine was taken in a New York City tenement in 1910. Hine was a documentary photographer who frequently turned his lens to the plight of immigrants, workers, and the poor. This family group, perhaps among the approximately two and a half million Italians who arrived in New York in the years 1890-1910, lives in squalid and cramped conditions typical of New York tenement buildings at the turn of the century.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Lewis W. Hine
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Lewis W. Hine, "Tenement, New York City, 1910," black and white photograph, 1910; in Walter Rosenblum et al., <em>America & Lewis W. Hine: Photographs 1904-1940</em> (New York: The Brooklyn Museum with Aperture, 1977).
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1910
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
Industrialization and Expansion (1877-1913)
Subject
The topic of the resource
Immigration and Migration
Italian Immigration
Jewish Immigration
Lewis Hine
Progressivism
-
https://shec.ashp.cuny.edu/files/original/bend_0d307b3066.tif
2f16c602444ce3fe397fc001ddf0b106
Omeka Image File
The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files.
Height
1800
Width
2124
Photograph
Original Caption
Not very far from that house there is a block that is reputed to be the worse spot in the country, and I should say it might be true from my acquaintance with it. It was decided to tear it down long since, but five years have passed, and the block is there still. We go slowly, very slowly in such matters as that in New York, when there is neither money nor politics in it. Here you are with the Italians. They live out of doors most of the time, and that is why they are healthy though dirty, and the death rate is not so large. Go there at sunset some evening, and you will see an army of men and women slouching along with the unmistakable gait of the tramp. Where they all go will puzzle you. One by one they disappear, even while you look and before your very eyes. You will be troubled to find what becomes of them, till you look sharp and find doorways leading into side alleys.
Dublin Core
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Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Photograph
Title
A name given to the resource
"Mulberry Bend"
Language
A language of the resource
English
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
American Social History Project / Center for Media and Learning
Description
An account of the resource
Jacob Riis is best known for his 1890 work <em>How the Other Half Lives</em>, a journalistic account, replete with Riis's dramatic photographs, of the deplorable conditions of late-nineteenth century urban life. Although Riis, himself a Danish immigrant, was for the most part sympathetic to his subjects, his account nonetheless employed language rife with generalizations and ethnic stereotypes, as well as the kind of moral pronouncements that appealed to his mostly middle-class, reform-minded audience. The photograph and text below were part of a slide show Riis presented to the Washington Convention of Christians at Work, probably in 1894.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Jacob Riis
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Jacob Riis, "The Other Half and How They Live; a Story in Pictures," c. 1894, text and photographs; from <em>History Matters: The U.S. Survey Course on the Web</em>, http://historymatters.gmu.edu/mse/Photos/question2.html#!
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1894 (Circa)
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
Industrialization and Expansion (1877-1913)
Italian Immigration
-
https://shec.ashp.cuny.edu/files/original/160mapprint_4b5f5089b9.png
f981b99524b52e6046248de304d19eab
Omeka Image File
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Bit Depth
8
Height
1029
Width
1648
Map
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Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Map
Title
A name given to the resource
Map of Block 160, 1902
Language
A language of the resource
English
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
American Social History Project / Center for Media and Learning
Description
An account of the resource
This is a map of Block 160 in New York City's Five Points neighborhood 1902. Public opinion of the Five Points neighborhood was highly negative and filled with bias. The population of New York had ballooned by the mid-nineteenth century causing a housing shortage, so the Five Points consisted mainly of tenement housing and apartments mixed with commercial and industrial interests. While outsiders viewed it to be a site for debauchery and degenerates, Five Points was a working-class neighborhood filled with both skilled and unskilled laborers. Five Points was home to various populations over the decades, including African Americans, Irish, eastern European Jewish, German, and Italian immigrants.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
G.W. Bromley & Co
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
G.W. Bromley & Co., "Map of Block 160, Bromley 1902," in <em>Tales of Five Points: Working-Class Life in Nineteenth-Century New York</em>, Vol. 1, ed. Rebecca Yamin (West Chester: John Milner Associates, Inc., 2000), 134.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1902
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
Industrialization and Expansion (1877-1913)
Subject
The topic of the resource
Immigration and Migration
Five Points
Irish Immigration
Italian Immigration
Jewish Immigration
-
https://shec.ashp.cuny.edu/files/original/comissreportedited_c1b1642954.tif
9ed3485fa371596c2a7510998df06827
Omeka Image File
The metadata element set that was included in the `files_images` table in previous versions of Omeka. These elements are common to all image files.
Width
1857
Height
2658
Government Document
Text
Any textual data included in the document.
<p>The great bulk of the present immigration proceeds from Italy, Austria, and Russia, and, furthermore, from some of the most undesirable sources of population of those countries. No one would object to the better class of Italians, Austrians, and Russians coming here in large numbers; but the point is that such better element does not come, and, furthermore, that immigration from such countries as Germany and the British Isles has fallen to a very low figure. </p>
<p>The great bulk of the present immigration settles in four of the Eastern States and most of it in the large cities of those States. Notwithstanding the well-known demand for agricultural labor in the Western States, thousands of foreigners keep pouring into our cities, declining to go where they might be wanted because they are neither physically or mentally fitted to go to these undeveloped parts of our country and do as did the early settlers from northern Europe. </p>
<p>...Past immigration was good because most of it was of the right kind and went to the right place. Capital cannot, and it would not if it could, employ much of the alien material that annually passes through Ellis Island, and thereafter chooses to settle in the crowded tenement districts of New York. </p>
<p>...A strict execution of our present laws makes it possible to keep out what may be termed the worst element of Europe (paupers, diseased persons, and those likely to become public charges), and to this extent these laws are most valuable….But these laws do not reach a large body of immigrants, who, while not of this class, are yet generally undesirable, because unintelligent, of low vitality, of poor physique, able to perform only the cheapest kind of manual labor, desirous of locating almost exclusively in the cities, by their competition tending to reduce the standard of living of the American wageworker, and unfitted mentally or morally for good citizenship.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Government Document
Language
A language of the resource
English
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
American Social History Project / Center for Media and Learning
Title
A name given to the resource
"Character of Present Immigration"
Description
An account of the resource
These extracts from the report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration were reprinted and circulated by the Immigration Restriction League, a Boston-based organization that favored stronger restrictions on immigration at the turn of the twentieth century. In it the Commissioner-General echoes the sentiments of many anti-immigration efforts of the time, noting the prevalence of immigration from Italy and Eastern Europe (although denying any ethnic prejudice against these groups), their concentration in eastern cities, and characterizing them as undesirable.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Immigration Restriction League
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Immigration Restriction League, "Character of Present Immigration," <em>Extracts from the Report of the Commissioner-General of Immigration for the Year Ending June 30, 1903,</em> American Memory, Library of Congress, http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/gilded/people/text9/text9link.htm.
Relation
A related resource
1622
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1903
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
Industrialization and Expansion (1877-1913)
Subject
The topic of the resource
Immigration and Migration
Italian Immigration
Jewish Immigration
-
Fiction/Poetry
Text
Any textual data included in the document.
<strong> CHILD OF THE ROMANS</strong><br /><br /><p>THE dago shovelman sits by the railroad track<br />Eating a noon meal of bread and bologna.<br />A train whirls by, and men and women at tables<br />Alive with red roses and yellow jonquils,<br />Eat steaks running with brown gravy,<br />Strawberries and cream, eclaires and coffee.<br />The dago shovelman finishes the dry bread and bologna,<br />Washes it down with a dipper from the water-boy,<br />And goes back to the second half of a ten-hour day's work<br />Keeping the road-bed so the roses and jonquils<br />Shake hardly at all in the cut glass vases<br />Standing slender on the tables in the dining cars.</p>
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Type
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Fiction/Poetry
Title
A name given to the resource
"Child of the Romans"
Language
A language of the resource
English
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
American Social History Project / Center for Media and Learning
Description
An account of the resource
The poetry of Carl Sandburg often documented the lives of ordinary working people in his adopted city of Chicago. Here he contrasts the backbreaking work and simple lunch of a railroad laborer with the comfortable lives and fine food enjoyed by the passengers on a first-class dining car rushing by. Despite the use of the pejorative term "dago" (an ethnic slur for Italians), the poem's title and Sandburg's sympathetic portrayal suggest a loftier lineage for the humble worker.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Carl Sandburg
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Carl Sandburg, "Child of the Romans," from <em>Chicago Poems </em>(H. Holt, 1916).
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1916
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
Modern America (1914-1929)
Subject
The topic of the resource
Work
Italian Immigration
-
https://shec.ashp.cuny.edu/files/original/ye_opprest_8c408389fc.png
c7cafa14ae1f0c14cdb39b4980508bff
Omeka Image File
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Width
499
Height
568
Bit Depth
8
Cartoon
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Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Cartoon
Title
A name given to the resource
A "Red Scare" Leads to Backlash Against Immigrants
Language
A language of the resource
English
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
American Social History Project / Center for Media and Learning
Description
An account of the resource
After World War I a "Red Scare" broke out as anxieties about political extremists and radicals led to widespread demonization and political persecution of leftists and immigrants. A series of high-profile events from the late-nineteenth century on, such as the Haymarket Square bombing and the assassination of President McKinley by Leon Czolgosz, had cemented the connection of radical politics and violence in the public mind, with the image of the "anarchist" in particular becoming synonymous with the bomb-throwing terrorist. Since many of the leading exponents of anarchism, as well the defendants in the notorious Sacco and Vanzetti case and President McKinley's assassin were Italian, Russian, or Eastern European, these groups in particular were stigmatized as the stereotypical "anarchists," bent on violent revolution and the destruction of America's institutions. This stereotype, suggested by the bomb-wielding, dark-featured "European Anarchist" of the cartoon, became a leading justification for the passage of quota laws which severely limited immigration from Italy, Russia, and other regions of Southern and Eastern Europe.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
James P. Alley
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
James P. Alley, "Come Unto Me, Ye Opprest!", <em>Memphis Commercial Appeal</em>, 5 July 1919.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1919
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
Modern America (1914-1929)
Subject
The topic of the resource
Immigration and Migration
Italian Immigration
Jewish Immigration
Red Scare
-
Book (excerpt)
Text
Any textual data included in the document.
<p>Immigrant families, by necessity, had to create a composite income based on the wages of the father and older children, income from boarders, and the earnings of women from work done at home. Louise More, in her study of wage-earning budgets in New York City in 1909, made a crucial observation about the family economy of immigrant and working-class families:</p>
<p>The number of families entirely dependent on the earnings of one person is small when compared with the number whose incomes include the earnings of the husband, wife, several children, some boarders. . . gifts from relatives, aid from charitable societies, insurance money in the case of death—several or all of these resources may enter into the total resources of that family in a year. Perhaps this income should more accurately be called the household income, for it represents the amount which comes into the family purse and of which the mother usually has the disbursement?</p>
<p>In most working-class families….the older children were required to [turn over their wages]. It was the “general custom for all boys and girls to bring their pay envelopes unopened and (the mother) had the entire disbursement of their wages, giving them 25 cents to one dollar a week spending money according to the prosperity of the family.†The unopened pay envelope was a sign of responsibility and respect for the work of the mother.</p>
<p>Amalia Morandi, an Italian garment worker, restated this pervasive theme: "I gave my pay envelope to my mother. . . I wouldn't dare open it up. . . I'd give it to my mother because I knew that she worked hard for us and I thought this was her compensation."</p>
<p>Mollie Linker articulated another aspect of this relationship: "I gave it all to my mother. It was the respect to bring and give your mother the money."</p>
<p>In the Old World, daughters were expected to support the work of their mothers in the home. But in America, to do this they had to leave the house and go into the factories. Yet mothers expected their daughters to respect the economic priorities of the household, and the sealed pay envelope was a new form of an old responsibility.</p>
<p>* * * * *</p>
<p>Having money to spend on oneself was closely connected to breaking out of the family circle. Amalia Morandi, and Italian garment worker, was a “good girlâ€â€”she always brought her pay home and stayed close to her mother. But her sister was different:</p>
<p>She used to open the envelope and take a few dollars if she needed it. They (her sister and friend) would have costume balls and she would come home at 2 o’clock—that was terrible, especially for the Italian people. That was awful, when a woman, a girl at her age, which was 18 or 19, when they came home at 12 o’clock the neighbors would gossip, would say look at that girl coming home by herself. My mother would talk to her, it did no good. It went in one ear and out the other. And then one day she came home and she says to my mother, she wanted to give her board. And my mother says whatdaya mean by board—my mother knew what she meant. She says, oh I give you so much a week, and then the rest is for me. So my mother says alright, go ahead, do what you please.</p>
<p>* * * * *</p>
<p>This transformation of traditional values created particular problems for women. Caught between the desires of their children and devotion (and obedience) to their husbands, called on to reinforce the patriarchal wishes of their husbands, the women found themselves in the middle of emotionally explosive family situations. In addition, traditions of patriarchy demanded that female children be subordinate and inferior, and immigrant daughters were allowed little leeway in their desire for independence, schooling, and sexual freedom. Since these demands frequently also challenged the mother’s standards of proper female behavior, she had to steer a course between the authority and discipline of her husband, the wishes of her daughters, and her own sensibilities.</p>
Dublin Core
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Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Book
Language
A language of the resource
English
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
American Social History Project / Center for Media and Learning
Title
A name given to the resource
<em>Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars</em> (Excerpt)
Description
An account of the resource
This excerpt from Elizabeth Ewen's <em>Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars</em> describes the economic relationships of working-class immigrant families at the turn of the century. The female head of the family played an important economic role, often being the recipient of pay envelopes from an entire family of workers, which may have included husbands and children as well as boarders. However, as Ewen notes, this arrangement was not without its tensions.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Elizabeth Ewen
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
Elizabeth Ewen, <em>Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side 1890-1925</em> (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1985).
Relation
A related resource
1996
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
1985
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
Industrialization and Expansion (1877-1913)
Subject
The topic of the resource
Immigration and Migration
Italian Immigration
Jewish Immigration
-
Article/Essay
Text
Any textual data included in the document.
<p>Between 1880 and 1910, almost fifteen million immigrants entered the United States, a number which dwarfed immigration figures for previous periods. Unlike earlier nineteenth century immigration, which consisted primarily of immigrants from Northern Europe, the bulk of the new arrivals hailed mainly from Southern and Eastern Europe. These included more than two and half million Italians and approximately two million Jews from Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as many Poles, Hungarians, Austrians, Greeks, and others.</p>
<p>The new immigrants’ ethnic, cultural, and religious differences from both earlier immigrants and the native-born population led to widespread assertions that they were unfit for either labor or American citizenship. A growing chorus of voices sought legislative restrictions on immigration. Often the most vocal proponents of such restrictions were labor groups (many of whose members were descended from previous generations of Irish and German immigrants), who feared competition from so-called “pauper labor.â€Â </p>
<p>After the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 barred Chinese immigration and made it nearly impossible for Chinese to become naturalized citizens, efforts to restrict European immigration increased. In the same year, the Immigration Act for the first time levied a “head tax†(initially fifty cents a person) intended to finance enforcement of federal immigration laws. The act also made several categories of immigrants ineligible to enter the United States, including convicts, "lunatics" (a catch-all term for those deemed mentally unfit) and those likely to become “public charges,†i.e., those who would place a financial burden on state institutions or charities. A second Immigration Act in 1891 expanded these categories to include polygamists and those sick with contagious diseases, and established a Bureau of Immigration to administer and enforce the new restrictions. In 1892, Ellis Island opened in New York Harbor, replacing Castle Garden as the main point of entry for millions of immigrants arriving on the East Coast. In accordance with the 1891 law, the federal immigration station at Ellis Island included facilities for medical inspections and a hospital. </p>
<p>While business and financial interests occasionally defended unrestricted immigration, viewing a surplus of cheap labor as essential to industry and westward expansion, calls for measures restricting the flow of the new immigrants continued to grow. Although President Grover Cleveland vetoed an 1897 law proposing a literacy test for prospective immigrants, further restrictions on immigration continued to be added. Following the assassination of President William McKinley in 1901 by the anarchist Leon Czolgosz, xenophobia and hysteria about political radicalism led to the Anarchist Exclusion Act, which excluded would-be immigrants on the basis of their political beliefs. </p>
<p>In 1907, immigration at Ellis Island reached its peak with 1,004,756 immigrants arriving. That same year, Congress authorized the Dillingham Commission to investigate the origins and consequences of contemporary immigration. The Commission concluded that immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe posed a serious threat to American society and recommended that it be greatly curtailed in the future, proposing as the most efficacious remedy a literacy test similar to the one President Cleveland had vetoed in 1897. Ultimately, the Commission’s findings provided a rationale for the sweeping immigration laws passed in the years after World War I.</p>
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Article/Essay
Title
A name given to the resource
Background Essay on Late 19th and Early 20th Century Immigration
Language
A language of the resource
English
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
American Social History Project / Center for Media and Learning
Description
An account of the resource
This summary of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century immigration describes the "new immigration" that originated from Southern and Eastern Europe. The essay also outlines American responses to the new wave of immigration, including some of the laws designed to restrict immigration that were adopted between 1880 and 1910.
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning
Source
A related resource from which the described resource is derived
American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning, 2008.
Rights
Information about rights held in and over the resource
Copyright American Social History Project/Center for Media and Learning
<div><br />This work is licensed under a <a href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License</a>.</div>
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2008
Coverage
The spatial or temporal topic of the resource, the spatial applicability of the resource, or the jurisdiction under which the resource is relevant
Industrialization and Expansion (1877-1913)
Subject
The topic of the resource
Immigration and Migration
Chinese Immigration
Italian Immigration
Jewish Immigration